Who Ruled Roman Britain?

How Rome ruled Britain

Hadrian

The Emperor Hadrian

When Britain became a province of the Roman Empire it was ruled by a Governor. As Britain was a military province the Governor was appointed by the Emperor.

The official title of the Governor as legatus Augusti pro praetore and he would be a man of senatorial rank. Appointments were usually for three or four years.

His duties included:

  • Military Commander in Chief
  • Chief Judge ( with the power of life or death over citizens )
  • Head of civil administration
  • Maintaining relationships with friendly chieftains and kings

The Governor was the Emperors representative and bore responsibility for implementing the directives of central government.

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Roman Coins: Senatus Consulto

Roman coin

The letters SC appear on this coin.

Roman Coin Propaganda

Roman coins were used for propaganda purposes. Coins were issued following great military victories or to let people know about important events for example.

Although the emperor had absolute power the letters SC were often inscribed on roman coins. This stands for “senatus consulto” meaning with permission of the senate. This was propaganda to give the impression that the senate still had authority whilst in reality it had none.

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The End Of The Roman Empire

Why Did The Roman Empire Fall?

English: Roman SPQR banner

English: Roman SPQR banner (Photo credit: Wikipedia)

Whilst discussing holidays with a friend we got onto talking about Italy as he has had some very enjoyable holidays in Tuscany. He is also quite interested in history and knowing that I do school workshops on Romans he asked me whatever caused the Roman Empire to decline and fall.  At the time I couldn’t give a clear and concise answer. I knew there  were many contributory factors and I couldn’t think where to start without boring my friend to death!

I recently read an article by Dr Miles Russell, a senior lecturer in Roman archaeology summarizing the main reasons for the fall of Ancient Rome in an article written for History Extra. I was very impressed with Dr Russell’s explanation. I made a list of the  key points below:

  • disease
  • invasion
  • civil war
  • social unrest
  • inflation
  • economic collapse

Dr Russell states that during the third and fourth century the continual internal power struggles between rival emperors was the most significant factor. The Empire turned in on itself and gradually tore itself apart. The army could no longer effectively defend the borders against constant attacks by waves of invaders from the north.

Although the eastern half of the empire continued the west broke up into a number of separate kingdoms effectively ending the Roman Empire and beginning the Dark Ages.

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Romanization of Britain: Towns

Types of Roman Towns

 

Roman Roads in Britain

Roman Roads in Britain (Photo credit: Wikipedia)

Before the arrival of the Romans Britain was made up of tribal areas with hill forts, settlements and farms connected by ancient pathways and tracks. Most Britons lived in circular “roundhouses”  and there was no uniformity in the positioning or layout of dwellings. By contrast Roman towns were laid out in a grid pattern with a central area and containing certain characteristic building which were common to all Roman towns throughout the empire. Here are the main types:

 Colonia

These were larger towns occupied mainly by Roman citizens ( often retired army personnel ). In Britain there were four, Colchester, Gloucester, Lincoln and York.

 Municipia

These towns were occupied by provincials but were under direct Roman control.

Civitas

The civitas ( the commonest and possibly most important type ) were self governing by local people and were often based on existing tribal centres. The local chieftain or tribal leaders became the civic leaders and were responsible for implementing Roman customs and laws.

Vicus

Smaller settlements that were located outside of Roman army forts or legionary bases. They provided homes for camp followers, soldiers families and also shops, taverns and tradesmen supplying the army’s needs.

Characteristic buildings in Roman towns

The following buildings were common to all larger Roman towns:

  • Forum or market place consisting of a large open area where people could gather to hear important news or announcements. Hold meetings, socialize and do business. There were usually shops round the sides.
  • Temple (s) to the gods where public religious ceremonies took place and where individuals could pay homage.
  • Basilica, a large building used for civic administration, money exchange, legal dispute and trials.
  • Public Baths, for bathing, exercising, having a drink or food and socializing.
  • Amphitheatre for entertainment such as gladiator fights ( there is only limited evidence of this in Britain ), chariot / horse racing animal hunts, theatre shows, military training and ceremonies etc.

Most towns had paved roads a water supply and some kind of sanitation.
Although during the early occupation buildings were of wood. Once the Romans were established in an area and local resources could be harnessed  important buildings were constructed from  locally quarried stone.
 
In Roman Britain as elsewhere most people did not live in towns. The majority of the population lived in the countryside. Villas were used to control and maximise agricultural resources. There were many villas in the south and east of Britain which were the most important farming areas. There were less in the military zones and hill country of the north. Villas varied in size from quite small to palatial ( Fishbourne ).
 
Although the arrival of the Romans had a massive impact on governance and the economy the vast majority of the population would have been unaffected. They continued to live in their  settlements as before. They would however have to pay taxes and be subject to Roman law.
 
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Why Did Julius Ceasar Invade Britain?

 Pretext for Invasion

 

The domination of Rome

It took Julius Caesar six years to take and pacify Gaul ( present day France, Belgium, southern Holland and pajuliuscaesarbustrt of Germany ).  After the initial conquest in 59 BC he had to put down numerous rebellions. One tribe called the Veneti lived on the Atlantic coast. They were powerful with a large fleet and had close trading links with the Dumnonii tribe who lived in south west Britain and the Durotriges who lived further east in the area that is now Hampshire.  When they rebelled in 56 BC they undoubtedly received support from their British allies but the Veneti were no match for the Roman Army on land and Ceasar also built a fleet of warships to ensure victory at sea. The Veniti were quickly defeated.

The Romans knew about Britain and believed it could be a source of valuable commodities such as iron, silver, copper and lead as well as grain, leather, wool and meat.  There was free flowing of merchandise across the channel although little was known of the geography of the islands, the size of the population or the extent of its natural resources.

It was normal practice for the Romans to mount punitive raids against troublesome neighbours and it is likely that Caesar wanted to show the British that the channel was no obstacle to the Roman army should he choose to punish them for interfering in Roman affairs.

The Romans had to safeguard the Republic by dominating tribes living near to the borders of their territory. Potential enemies had to know that acts of aggression would provoke immediate and severe reprisals from the Roman army.

Caesar’s ambition

Julius Caesar was ambitious and his conquest of Gaul had brought him immense personal wealth as well as increasing his standing in Rome where he was hailed by the Roman people as a hero of the Republic. Caesar was now at the head of an experienced, well trained and powerful army who were utterly loyal to him.  The prospect of conquering Britain must have been very tempting as this would further add to his glory and bring even more wealth and prestige. He must have felt supremely confident that he could do as he pleased and that no-one could oppose his will.

Caesar was curious about the Britons. He wanted to find out about their customs, how they lived and how their warriors fought. He wanted to know more about the land and in particular where there were good harbours, anchorages and landing sites. This information would be useful in the event of future military campaigns against the British.

Although crossing the channel would be a great risk militarily Caesar considered the potential rewards outweighed the consequences of failure.

The return of Mandubracius

When the Veniti were beaten envoys came from Britain to pay homage to Caesar presumably hoping to avert an invasion. At this time Caesar was approached by a young British prince called Mandubrachius whose father had been king of the Trinovantes ( whose territory is present day Essex ). When his father was murdered by Cassivellaunus of the Catevellauni tribe Madubracius fled to Caesar for protection. The elders of the Trinovantes wanted their prince to come back and be their cheiftain. They petitioned Caesar to help agreeing to obey and assist him in return. It was an attractive offer as the Tirnovantes would be useful allies and new trade routes could be opened up with them which would be more beneficial to Rome and potentially  lucrative to Caesar himself.

A foregone conclusion

It seems inevitable that Caesar would invade Britain. The Britons had to be made to acknowledge and respect the power of Rome. Caesar wanted to enhance his reputation and standing ( gravitas ) with the senate and the people of Rome. He also stood to gain financially by extending his influence to the new lands. Finally he had an open invitation to cross the channel in order to assist the Trinovantes.

Caesar invaded first in 55 BC and then again in 54 BC however he did not stay and the full Roman conquest did not begin until nearly 100 years later in the reign of he Emperor Claudius.

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Gladiators

Types of Gladiators

Gladiators fights were an important part of the entertainment Romans loved to watch. Although gladiators were made up mainly of defeated enemy soldiers, criminals and slaves they were greatly admired and appreciated by the public. The most successful and therefore famous gladiators were hailed as heroes and achieved the kind of status afforded today to modern celebrity sporting personalities. Of course gladiators were not free and only the lucky ones survived. The brutality of their existence meant that many were killed in the arena to the delight of the blood thirsty Roman audiences.

There were various types of gladiator. Each had a specific set of arms and equipment and was trained in the gladiator school to fight in a certain way. Sometimes two gladiators of the same type fought each other. Alternatively different types could be paired up to fight. In this case each tried to outwit the other using his specialist  fighting style.

Although there are no specific records about gladiator types it has been possible to work out what they were from evidence in mosaics, inscriptions on gravestones, texts by writers of the ancient world, ancient paintings and through armour and equipment found in places like Pompeii.

A retiarius gladiator stabs at his secutor opp...

A retiarius gladiator stabs at his secutor opponent with his trident. Mosaic from the villa at Nennig. (Photo credit: Wikipedia)

Here are the main types:

  • Thraeces
  • Murmillones
  • Hoplomachi
  • Retiarii
  • Secutores
  • Provocatores
  • Essadarii
  • Dimachaeri
  • Velites
  • Paegniarii
  • Equites
  • Andabatae

Thraeces

He carried a small curved sword ( sica ) and a small round or square shield ( parma ). As the shield could only protect his chest and stomach he also wore high leg plates.

Murmillones

The murmillo carried a long shield ( scutum ) and was armed with a narrow sword ( gladius ). Because he had a long shield he wore short leg plates.

Hopolomachii

The hoplomachus had a lance, short sword and a small bronze shield.

Retiarius

He wore no helmet or armour except for a bronze plate over his left shoulder and upper arm. He carried a throwing net and his maim armament was a trident. He sometimes also had a dagger.

Secutor

The secutor ore a helmet with small circular eye holes which meant that he had limited vision and had to get in close to his opponent to have a chance of winning.

Provocatores

Equipped with long shields, leg plates on the left leg only, breast plates and short swords.

Essadarii

Rode in chariots and dismounted to fight on foot.

Dimachaeri

Fought with two swords.

Veles

Fought with a spear.

Paegniarii

Wearing leather armour and with no helmet or shield they were armed with a whip and a stick with a hook on the end. They generally fought each other.

Equites

Wearing multi coloured tunics and with medium sized shields they fought with spears and swords.

Andabatae

These gladiators were either blindfolded or wore helmets with no eye holes. They fought each other with swords.

In addition to the above there were also special gladiators who were trained to fight animals.

Venatores

Animal hunters.

Bestiarii

Men who fight wild beasts.

 

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My Day Trip To Vindolanda ( Hadrian’s Wall )

Visiting Vindolanda

Roman writing tablet from the Vindolanda Roman...

Roman writing tablet from the Vindolanda Roman fort of Hadrian’s Wall, in Northumberland (1st-2nd century AD). Tablet 343: Letter from Octavius to Candidus concerning supplies of wheat, hides and sinews. British Museum (London) (Photo credit: Wikipedia)

Although the weather wasn’t perfect I decided to head on up to Northumberland anyway. It was a rather dull, cool, dreary day but I had been promising myself this trip for ages and so off I went. It took me about an hour to drive from my home in Richmond, North Yorkshire up the A68 to Corbridge. From there I followed the A69 in the direction of Carlisle, passing Hexham and eventually turning right and up through the village of Wall and on to Vindolanda. Overall the journey took me about an hour and a half. I arrived at 11.30 am.

Vindolanda is not actually on Hadrian’s Wall. It is one of the forts built along the Stanegate Road which was the original frontier line before the wall was built.

Wall Turret

Wall Turret

I paid my £10 entrance fee, bought a guide book £3.99 and then sat in the reception area and did some reading before setting off to explore the site.  I was particularly interested in the reconstruction of a section of wall and turret which has been built to show what the original wall may have been like. There is also a reconstruction in timber too. The museum at the bottom of the hill is excellent and contains examples of the incredible writing tablets discovered at the bottom of a bonfire which the Romans had used to burn rubbish. Fortunately hundreds survived the fire and provide an amazing insight into life at Vindolanda.

I walked back to my car for lunch at 1.30 pm and then returned to go on the guided tour at 2 pm. The gentleman ( called Mike ) who took us round did a great job explaining the history of the place and pointing out all of the key areas. I am glad I stayed for this. Most informative.

I left at 3.15 pm and drove the seven miles to the Roman Army Museum. Entrance to this was included with my ticket. Although it is fairly small the museum is excellent. Superb displays and several excellent film shows about life in the Roman Army and Hadrian’s Wall.

By 5 pm I was ready to head for home. I had thoroughly enjoyed my day out in the wilds of Northumberland. I didn’t have time to walk along the wall or visit any of the other sites. In fact I could have spent longer here. Vindolanda and The Roman Army Museum requires a full day to do it justice.

Next time I will be visiting Housteads and walking along a section of the wall too but I’m going to pick a nice sunny day in the summer.

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School With A Zoo!

Cromwell Road Primary, Birmingham

What an amazing school. Apart from all the fantastic, inspiring artwork and displays inside and outside the school they even have their own mini zoo. I have never seen so many animals and birds in a school before. How amazing for children living in the centre of a massive city to experience nature hands on like this.

This was not all. There were other creatures and mini beasts that I missed. They have made a massive effort here to create something really special for the children. Excellent!

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Imagining Ancient Rome

Rome As It Might Have Been

At its zenith the ancient City of Rome was the capital of the civilized world with an estimated population of over a million people. Its vibrancy was the heart beat of the Empire.

It is hard for us to imagine what it must have been like to walk through crowded, teaming, noisy, bustling streets or what we could expect to see in the the forums or bascillicas.

The Forum, Rome

The Forum, Rome, as it is today.

The following description taken from the book Quo Vadis by Henryk Sienkiewicz, helps us to perceive Rome as it may have been:

There appeared Ethiopians, gigantic light-haired people from the distant north, Britons, Gauls, Germans, sloping-eyed dwellers of Lericum; Syrians from the banks of the Orontes, with black and mild eyes; dwellers in the deserts of Arabia, dried as bone; Jews, with their flat breasts; Egyptians, with eternal, indifferent smile on their faces; Numidians and Africans; Greeks from Hellas, who equally with the Romans commanded the city, but commanded through, art, wisdom, and deceit; Greeks from the islands, from Asia Minor, from Egypt, from Italy, from Narbonic Gaul. In the throng of slaves, with pierced ears, were not lacking also freemen, -an idle population, which Caesar amused, supported, even clothed,-and free visitors, whom the ease of life and the prospects of fortune enticed to the gigantic city; there was no lack of venal persons. There were priests of Serapis, with palm branches in their hands; priests of Isis, to whose altar more offerings were brought than to the temple of Capitoline Jove; priests of Cybele, bearing in their hands golden ears of rice; and priests of nomad divinities; and dancers of the east with bright head-dresses, and dealers in amulets, and snake tamers, and Chaldean seers; and, finally, people without any occupation whatever, who applied for grain every week at the storehouses on the Tiber, who fought for lottery-tickets to Circus, who spent their nights in rickety houses of districts beyond the Tiber, and sunny warm days under covered poticos, and in foul eating houses of the Subura, on the Milvan bridge, or before the “insulae” of the great, where from time to time remnants from the tables of slaves were thrown out to them.

Clearly multiculturalism is not a modern invention. Ancient Rome must have been a wonder to behold with its diversity of cultures, its magnificent buildings, impressive statues and beautiful wall paintings.

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